It is also assumed that the in-plane scattering is isotropic and thus no information on molecular orientations is revealed. These grazing-incidence methods rely on significant heterogeneities in materials or structures in the film to reconstruct the corresponding spatial maps. (2012 ) have demonstrated the reconstruction of nanostructure from coherent X-ray surface scattering. On the other hand, a coherent X-ray source allows for the direct reconstruction of domain spatial distribution from the scattering features without tomography. The approach focused on the morphological structure instead of the spatial resolution. (2019 ) utilized a rotational GISAXS method to determine the shape and the orientation of a line grating with sub-nanometre precision. These CT-based approaches achieved high-resolution reconstruction but required different structure factors to identify the various materials and were only applicable to in-plane isotropic films, i.e. They also showed the reconstruction of organic–inorganic multilayers (Ogawa et al., 2017 ) by utilizing the different total reflection angles and penetration depths between the organic and inorganic layers. (2015, 2020 ) reported the reconstruction of spatial maps of gold and platinum nanoparticles on silicon substrates through GISAXS coupled with CT. (2009 ) employed computed tomography (CT) coupled with grazing-incidence (GI) small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) to topographically reconstruct self-assembled colloidal crystalline structures of polystyrene spheres and gold particles. It would be beneficial, however, if scattering data sets could provide access to the real-space spatial distribution of material characteristics. Scattering data are often reduced and interpreted to determine statistically the phases or crystal orientations for bulk samples. Grazing-incidence X-ray methods are often used to study thin-film properties for applications in, for example, semiconductors and photovoltaics (Hexemer & Müller-Buschbaum, 2015 Smilgies et al., 2002 Zhang et al., 2006 Jung et al., 2019 ). X-ray scattering methods allow for the determination of morphological and molecular structures over a broad length scale, ranging from ångströms to micrometres or more. Interference: (of waves) to be correlated with each other when overlapped or superposed.Characterization of thin films is essential for evaluating material processing outcomes and efficiency as well as establishing structure–property/performance relationships. This depends on the ratio between the thin film’s thickness d and the wavelength λ of light source. Constructive or destructive interference can occur with thin films.The diffraction pattern depends on a, λ, f, d, and the medium between D. The wavelength (λ) must be much smaller than the aperture (a) for interference/diffraction to occur.
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